1. Introduction

The theoretical debates about the justification and the necessity for the expanding and deepening of the security concept during the early 90s of the last century, have initiated the emergence and actualization of new security understandings, as well as emergence of new security concepts. Actually, beside the previous dominant security understanding mainly through the prism of the military sector, the representatives of the Copenhagen School of Security Studies propose that the comprehensive security analysis should be also based on the dynamics in the political, economic, societal and environmental sector. The existence of two basic components on which security analysis is based in these sectors, represent their common characteristic. Such are existence of: 1) threat/s, and 2) reference object/s, or object/s that is/are vulnerable to the threat. Moreover, this approach can be extended by analyzing the values and interests of the reference objects to which the threats are directed, as well as the sources and ways of threats manifestation.

Starting from this point of view, as well as in its semantical meaning, it is no doubt that society itself should be perceived as a reference object of security within the concept of societal security. However, dilemmas arise regarding the question of what are the society values that may be under threats from the societal security perspective and how they can be prevented or effectively resolved. Actually, taking into account that the most representative values in the national security concept, as well as in the military sector, are the integrity and sovereignty of the states, then what are the values of the society towards which societal security is aimed. Can we talk about only one or about several values as reference objects in the societal sector?

Starting from their broader context, societies are defined as large communities sharing a sense of belonging and a collective identity (Waever, 1993). In this regard, actually a sense of belonging and a collective identity can be perceived as a reference objects of the societal security. Such an understanding of the societal security corresponds with its understanding by the by representatives of the Copenhagen School of Security Studies, according to whom identity is the main concept within which the term societal security is formed. In fact, this concept refers to large groups that have the capacity for self-preservation, groups that are often described as national, religious, racial, ethnic, or minority and that have developed a so-called sense of belonging and group authenticity. Therefore, such concept is also known as a concept of identity security.

From today's point of view, it can be pointed out that it is visible, a continuous increasing of the threats intensity connected with identity issues, in the past 30 years. Of the many new security challenges that have emerged since of the end of the Cold War societal security has enjoyed the most attention and been the object of the most debate (Burgess & Mouhleb, 2007).

Actually, starting from the violent disintegration of the former Yugoslavia, then the events in Kosovo (1999), the terrorist attacks in the USA (2001), up to the challenges of dealing with the migrant crisis and the refugee waves, as well with the potential challenges related to the integration and inclusion of refugees and migrants in the new states and societies, it can be located the existence of identity issues and aspects in all of these, as well as in other events and processes. Beside such events and processes in which different identities are at the core of the problem, there are also examples of a gradual reduction in the meaning of the so-called traditional identities in the interest of a new, supranational identity. In this regard, Weaver points out that integration process in Western Europe is leading to a growing detachment of the national/cultural identity from the nation-state. As competences are transferred beyond the state and the free movement of persons expands, ethno-national identities can no longer rely on the nation-state for protection. Instead, they increasingly protect themselves by strengthening their cultural identities, becoming cultural-national communities and moving beyond the traditional nation-states (Waever, 1993). The analysis in this paper seeks to explore the understanding of societal security through the prism of different types of threats in this sphere.

2. Theoretical Aspects of the Societal Security Concept

From historical point of view, the term societal security was first used by Barry Buzan, in the book People, States and Fear, as one of the five sectors in his five-dimensional approach to security theory, along with military, political, economic, and environmental security (Buzan, 1991). It is characteristic that all of these dimensions were still sectors of state security: Society, for example, was just one sector where the state could be threatened (Roe, 2005). Two years later, in 1993, it was published a book: Identity, Migration and the New Security Agenda in Europe, within it, Ole Waever, Barry Buzan, Morten Kelstrup, and Pierre Lemaitre argued that societal insecurities; insecurities over ethnic, national and religious identities, have become more and more important in relation to those over state sovereignty in contemporary Europe. Actually, starting from the new security context, Ole Waever, proposed a reconceptualization of Buzan's previous theory, not of five sectors of state security, but of a duality of state and societal security. Societal security is still kept as a sector of state security, but now it is also a referent object of security in its own right. Whereas state security is concerned about threats to its sovereignty (if the state loses its sovereignty it will not survive as a state), societal security is concerned about threats to a society's identity (if a society loses its identity it will not survive as a society) (Waever, 1993), or as Buzan pointed out, societies are ‟fundamentally about identity‟ (Buzan, 1993).

The societal security is about the survival of a community as a cohesive unit. Actually, security on the societal level can be understood as the absence of threats to what society holds as dear (Burgess & Mouhleb, 2007). In its essence, societal security refers to identity and maintaining survival in appropriate conditions for development, preservation of traditional language, culture, religion, and ethnic identity. Societal values are not the same as individual values. Though society is obviously made up of individuals, it is the socially shared values that engage the society in collective actions of a variety of different kinds, among others, self-preservation. Society protects its shared values through its institutions. Most societal institutions play this role in a more or less direct way (Burgess & Mouhleb, 2007).

The reason about the different intensity of which different societal institutions perceive and recognize their role in societal security building and promoting, can be explore in the fact that this concept has not been sufficiently actualized and promoted among them, in the past period. Against the range of non-military threats (recessions, migrations, refugees, pandemics, environmental problems, etc.), that the world has faced in the past 30 years, it seems that military threats are still wit the the highest priority in the security agenda. Moreover, it should be also noted that the concept of societal security is not identical to social security, which usually refers to individuals and citizens and mostly to the economic problems. In contrast to social groups, the collective identity of a society is sufficiently large and robust as to be able to challenge the territorial state identity (Waever, 1993).

In this regard, the societal security referent object is large scale of collective identities that can function independent of the state. Actually, such concept refers to the security of the community and its identity which is assumed to be threatened or endangered. According to the Copenhagen school, the most important identity communities in modern times are ethnic groups and nations (Theiler, 2003). Experience shows that most often these threats are initiated as a result of the processes taking place within the state. Namely, the secondary effects of state or society efforts to ensure security often overshadow the primary positive effects. In the process of securitizing society, side effects or unintended consequences also arise. By ensuring the security of a given sector of society, other groups in society may be targeted for surveillance or particular focus which causes a sense of insecurity for that group. In return identification of such occurrences or “risk-groups” may also increase a sense of insecurity in society in general. This may generate a vicious circle of insecurity and distrust among community groups as well as among certain groups and the state (Burgess & Mouhleb, 2007).

The range of threats to the societal identity can be different, starting from disabling its expression, to affecting its ability for itself reproducing. According to Buzan, this may include ‟forbidding the use of language, names and dress, through closure of places of education and worship, to the deportation or killing of members of the community‟ (Buzan, 1993). Related to the threat aimed at the ability for reproducing a concrete identity, it can be noted that it is most often associated with the limiting or forbidding of the work and functioning of the institutions that reproduce language and cultural peculiarities, so that the identity will not be able to be properly transmitted from one generation to another. Moreover, the issue of hindering the reproduction of a specific identity from the perspective of societal security, can also be analyzed through the prism of changes in the balance of the population in a specific area. According to the extreme nationalist ideology in this context, any form of foreign presence can represent a threat to the pure existence and reproduction of national identity. In this regard, Waever, highlights the importance of the so-called ‟cultural nationalism‟, as an idea about defending culture with culture, or "if one's identity seems threatened the answer is a strengthening of existing identities" (Waever, 1995).

However, societal insecurities arise when “a society fears it would not be able to live as itself”, and stem from:

Migration - the influx of people will “overrun or dilute” a group’s identity;

Horizontal competition - group is forced to integrate more influential identities within their own;

Vertical competition - changes in the way the group sees itself and its own identity under the influence of integration or secessionist processes (Georgieva, 2010).

All these threats can have a different meaning for certain groups, heaving in mind that groups can have a different sense of identity, and thus a different vulnerability. Thus, for some societies that are more sensitive to external influence and to the so-called the presence of foreigners, even a small changes on this plan will be perceived as a serious threat. From other side, in societies that are composed of different ethnic or national identities, nationalism as ideas and separatism will pose a serious threat. Moreover, if the society is built on the “melting pot” ideology about bringing different groups into one which is different from the previous ones, it will be vulnerable to threats caused by a possible return to the previous cultural, ethnic or national diversity. Hence, different vulnerability is a basic characteristic of different groups that can represent a reference object of societal security.

3. Societal Security Understanding Through the Prism of Contemporary Security Threats

The societal threats are usually part of the larger complex of military and political security threats. The essential importance of the societal threats as a national security problem consists in the fact that most of them are located within the state. The reason for this mainly stems from the fact that the threat to identity values is much more common within the state, than from outside (Waever, 1993).

The process of nation-state creation is often aimed at suppressing or at least on homogenizing sub-state societal identities. Experiences so far, illustrate that internal societal threats are mainly characteristic of weaker states. Through them, a contradiction of the national security sphere is manifested - that by suppressing sub-national identities, one can contribute through a long-term process to create a stronger state (Buzan, 1991). From such processes, numerous problems often arise which are identified as insecurity in the internal security of the state.

About the societal security and its understanding through the prism of contemporary security threats, it can be stated that the reasons for the appearance of these threats today, are mostly located in the various violations of human rights, the low standard of living and the current conflicts. We are witnessing that this kind of environment initiates migrants and refugees waves, mainly directed towards Western Europe. Actually, as a result and consequences of political persecutions, conflicts, a high degree of terror and low living standards, various violations of human rights, etc., people are increasingly forced to leave their homes today. The so far developments on the world stage and in world politics initiated by the revolutionary events in the Arab world and especially in Syria, further confirm the everyday violations of human rights. As a result of that and the risky security environment, people leave their homes in search of protection and normal living conditions. From the societal security aspect, such migrant issue acquires a security dimension as a result of the response to it by the states to which the migrant and refugee waves are directed. Actually, it is characteristic that in such situations the states are usually faced dilemma of whether the response to the refugee crisis should be aimed solely at the protection of the interests of their citizens or of the refugees needs and rights. As example, during the 2011/2012 within the European Union, Libyan refugees were not welcome and asylum seekers' applications were generally rejected (thus confirming that humanitarian reasons for granting asylum are not crucial). It is precisely from this aspect that the interdependent relationship between the issue of migrants and asylum seekers with securitization in the societal sector emerges. The reason arises because securitization in international relations, is a process in which state actors transform different issues (political, humanitarian, social) in security ones.

In this regard, if migrants or refugees will be perceived or framed from humanitarian aspect, then such an approach would initiate completely different feelings and relations versus formulating the same question from a security perspective. However, what are the most common reasons why the migrant issue is also perceived as a security issue? Among other things, as first it is related to the impossibility of identifying their identity or origin. Then, the events related to the terrorist attacks involving foreigners in several European cities can also be cited one of the reasons (Vienna 2020, Berlin 2016, Paris 2015, London 2005, Madrid 2004 etc.). In terms of the perception and framing of this issue at the European continent, it is characteristic that starting from 2015, after terrorist attacks in several European cities, the group The Islamic State (also known as ISIS or ISIL) has become a top priority of the security agendas of the European states. Actually, this group is presented as a threat to the security of the state, but also as a threat to the security of European citizens as well as to Western democratic values and life style, which can be directly linked to the societal security. In this regard, after the attacks in Paris on November 13, 2015, French President Francois Hollande declares that "France is at war" against the army of jihadists who "attacked France, because France is a country of freedom" (Clara, 2018).

The increased security concerns of states in response to these events, are direct reflected on the migrants and refugees themselves by undermining the established international regime for their protection. Actually, security concerns and the fight against terrorism have strengthened the restrictive nature of migrant and asylum policies in many countries around the world. Thus, the perceptions that migrant and refugees above all, represent a threat are becoming more and more common for the security of the states and societies as well as that they are potential terrorists on grounds alone of their nationality, religion or country of origin, or in other words solely on the basis of their identity. So, in this regard the very presence of members of another identity is perceived as a threat to security. According to the UNHCR, the emergence of new security concerns for countries, especially after the events from September 11, 2001, has initiated the securitization of the established migrant and asylum practices and policies. In this regard, more and more migrants, refugees and asylum applicant seekers are considered bearers of insecurity, and not as victims of it (UNHCR, 2006).

Another significant challenge for the societal security is the issue about the integration of foreign citizens (migrants, refugees, asylum seekers, etc.) within new states and societies. It is because integration itself is often perceived as a fear and as a threat that in the long run can threaten the autochthony of already existing societal identities in the concrete society. An additional dilemma in this context, is the question of whether and how much the so-called foreign citizens are open to abandoning part of their identity marks (clothing, religious symbols and signs) in the interest of their integration and inclusiveness in the new societies. This is because inclusion in certain societies is directly determined by the identity restrictions of foreign citizens. Actually, if range of societal fears would cathect themselves around immigration these fears were to find their institutional correlates within a whole series of governmental programs and schemes focused upon the problem of immigration (Walters, 2010).

On the other hand, social exclusion in new societies is also perceived by migrants as a threat to their identity. The integration of migrants is a pressing issue in Europe due to the large numbers of migrants that entered Europe during the past two decades. The most recent surge is fueled by the growing numbers of Syrians, Iraqis, Libyans, Afghans and Eritreans escaping war, ethnic conflict or economic hardship risking their lives trying to reach Europe. Migrants face a greater risk of social exclusion than the native population, especially with respect to accessing employment, education, health and social services. Within the migrant population some groups are particularly at risk and thus require tailored integration measures. This is especially the case for third country nationals, refugees and beneficiaries of international protection, low skilled migrants, women, unaccompanied minors-migrants with disabilities and irregular migrants (European Platform for Rehabilitation, 2016).

4. Concluding Remarks

As a result of all previously presented, it can be concluded that the concept of societal security, allowed full filling the vacuum in theoretical debates about the understanding of security and reference objects on a broader and deeper basis. Actually, by the introduction of the identity of groups as a reference object of security, a new understanding and explanation of security phenomena and threats has been made possible in the last 30 years. If at the beginning, this new security understanding and explanation was based mainly on events and processes related to ethnic conflicts, both on European soil and around the world, starting from 2015, another dimension related to migrant and refugee issues has been added.

However, regardless of the aspects and the environment through which the threats and challenges to societal security are analyzed, the paper analysis shows that identity is a serious motivating factor for the mobilization of groups and collectivities, especially in situations where it is considered that it is object to threats or risks. The analysis, also confirms that the sources of identity threats are much more perceived in the policies and activities of groups with another or different identity, than it is the case with the activities within the group itself.

That is why threats related to migrations, as well as to horizontal and vertical competition, have a priority importance within the framework of societal security. In fact, adding a security dimension, especially to issues related to migration, refugees and asylum, initiates a new and broader understanding of societal security today.

5. References